Intraretinal Hyperreflective Foci
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Intraretinal Hyperreflective Foci

Intraretinal hyperreflective foci (IHRF) are defined as small, discrete hyperreflective dots in anatomical continuity with the neurosensory retina, typically measuring less than 30–40 μm in diameter. Their reflectivity is variable…
Multiple Sclerosis and Ophthalmology
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Multiple Sclerosis and Ophthalmology

1. Disease Pathogenesis and Clinical Demographics Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the premier chronic autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Characterized by inflammatory episodes that result in gliosis…
Steroid-induced glaucoma (SIG)
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Steroid-induced glaucoma (SIG)

Steroid-induced glaucoma (SIG) occurs in up to 8% of the general population, with higher, clinically significant, or severe responses (IOP > 31 mmHg) affecting 4%–6% of individuals. The risk increases significantly…
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Eye
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GLP-1 Receptor Agonists and Eye

1. Physiological Mechanisms and Incretin Pathophysiology Incretins are gut-derived metabolic hormones secreted by enteroendocrine cells that serve as critical regulators of systemic glucose homeostasis. For the Academic Retina Specialist, mastering…